Formality
| Informal | Academic |
|---|---|
| don't, it's, can't | do not, it is, cannot |
| a lot of, lots of | many, much, a considerable number/amount of |
| get, got | obtain, become, receive |
| look into, find out | investigate, determine |
| go up, go down | increase, decrease |
| deal with | address |
| big, good, bad | substantial, beneficial, harmful |
| thing(s), stuff | factor, aspect, issue, material |
| kids | children |
| nowadays | currently, at present |
| really, very | (omit) or highly, particularly |
Phrasal verbs are not banned in academic writing, but a single-word verb is often more precise.
Hedging (cautious language)
Academic writers qualify claims to match the evidence.
| Device | Examples |
|---|---|
| Modal verbs | may, might, could |
| Lexical verbs | suggest, indicate, appear, seem, tend to |
| Adverbs | possibly, probably, arguably, generally |
| Adjectives | likely, possible, probable |
| Quantifiers | some, many, in most cases, to some extent |
| Introductory phrases | It is possible that..., There is evidence that..., This may be because... |
Overclaiming: This proves that social media is bad for students. -> These findings suggest that heavy social media use may reduce study time for some students.
Impersonal style
- Avoid addressing the reader as you; use impersonal forms (It can be seen that..., Students may...).
- First person (I argue, we found) is accepted in many disciplines, especially in reflective writing and the humanities; check the department's conventions.
- Turn rhetorical questions into statements: Why do students spend so much time online? -> The reasons for students' high levels of online activity are unclear.
Nominalisation and density
Students use social media more, so they study less. -> Increased social media use is associated with reduced study time. Teach it for concision, but warn against chains of nouns that obscure meaning.
Cohesion
| Function | Linking language |
|---|---|
| Addition | Furthermore, In addition, Moreover |
| Contrast | However, In contrast, Nevertheless, Whereas |
| Cause/effect | Therefore, As a result, Consequently, This leads to |
| Example | For example, For instance, Such as |
| Conclusion | In conclusion, Overall, To summarise |
Start sentences with However or Therefore rather than But or So.
Using sources
| Purpose | Reporting verbs |
|---|---|
| Neutral | states, notes, describes, reports, observes |
| Argue | argues, claims, maintains, contends |
| Tentative | suggests, proposes, speculates |
| Agree / disagree | supports, confirms / challenges, questions, disputes |
Paraphrase: change structure and vocabulary, keep meaning, always cite. Quote only when the exact words matter, with page numbers.
actfl-proficiency-curriculum-mapper
Map world language curricula to the ACTFL framework: proficiency levels (Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, Distinguished with sublevels), functions, contexts, text types and accuracy, proficiency vs performance, the three modes of communication (interpretive, interpersonal, presentational), the 5 Cs World-Readiness Standards, backward-designed thematic units with Integrated Performance Assessments, typical programme targets and FSI time estimates. Looks up approximate ACTFL-CEFR-ILR equivalences with what each level can do, and checks a unit map for missing modes, rehearsed skits mislabelled as interpersonal, translation or word lists as interpretive tasks, and units without an integrated performance assessment.
adult-literacy-esl-lesson-builder
Build lessons for adult ESL learners who are developing literacy (LESLLA learners: pre-literate, non-literate, semi-literate, literate in a non-Roman script): learner profiles and sensitive initial assessment, principles (oral language first, known to new, systematic phonics with adult-relevant text, repetition, classroom skills, respect for experience), a lesson routine (oral warm-up, review, new grapheme, blending, segmenting, decodable text, writing, functional literacy, Language Experience Approach), a phonics sequence for adults, sight words, functional literacy targets (forms, signs, medicine labels) and portfolio assessment. Checks whether a reading text is decodable with the letter-sound patterns and sight words taught so far, catching untaught digraphs, listing non-decodable words with the untaught part, and suggesting the most useful next patterns.
authentic-material-lesson-adapter
Turn authentic material (news articles, podcasts, videos, songs, menus, timetables, adverts, social media posts, forms, infographics) into language lessons by grading the task rather than the text. Selects texts for interest, relevance, exploitability, coverage, cultural load and rights; finds the 4-6 words to pre-teach, words to gloss on the page and words learners can ignore, plus names and cultural references to explain, with reading time by level; and builds a lesson shape (lead-in, pre-teach, gist or scanning, graded detail task, language focus on chunks and register, response) with task ideas per material type and level from A1 to C1. Covers copyright, fair dealing and fair use, Creative Commons and attribution.
can-do-statement-writer
Write and review can-do statements for language courses, units, lessons and learner self-assessment, CEFR or NCSSFL-ACTFL style: action (observable verb) + text or situation + level-specific conditions, learner ('I can') and descriptor ('Can') versions, progressions of one activity from A1 to C1, and coverage of reception, production, interaction and mediation. Includes a verb bank by mode and level and condition and text-type banks. Lints statements for teacher-centred phrasing, knowledge instead of use (learn, know, understand the passive), missing context, two skills in one statement, vague quality words, grammar items as outcomes, overlong statements and missing modes in a set.
cefr-aligned-syllabus-builder
Build language course syllabuses aligned to the CEFR (A1-C2, plus levels, Companion Volume 2020): entry and exit levels, guided learning hours and course length (with an L1-distance adjustment), syllabus type (topic, functional-notional, task-based, skills-based, multi-strand), unit-by-unit can-do outcomes, grammar from a core inventory by level, vocabulary, functions, pronunciation, balance of reception, production, interaction and mediation, recycling and assessment points. Checks a syllabus for units without can-do statements, core grammar for the level not covered, items above the course level, skills missing from most units and units with no vocabulary or functions.
classroom-management-for-esl-coach
Coach ESL/EFL teachers in classroom management: the instruction sequence (attention, group first, graded imperatives, demonstration, ICQs, hand out, start, check), ICQ examples, online instructions, routines for the first weeks (class agreement, L1 use, phones, lateness, homework, seating), strategies for L1 use in tasks, dominant and quiet learners, mixed levels, large classes, fast finishers, low motivation, disruptive young learners and teens, cultural expectations, classroom language to teach early and teacher presence. Checks planned instructions for length, missing ICQs, useless ICQs like 'Do you understand?', no demonstration, long sentences, filler and missing grouping or timing, and builds seating plans that keep named learners apart, seat learners who need the front, mix first languages and alternate stronger and weaker learners.