# Academic Style: What to Teach and Check

## Formality

| Informal | Academic |
|----------|----------|
| don't, it's, can't | do not, it is, cannot |
| a lot of, lots of | many, much, a considerable number/amount of |
| get, got | obtain, become, receive |
| look into, find out | investigate, determine |
| go up, go down | increase, decrease |
| deal with | address |
| big, good, bad | substantial, beneficial, harmful |
| thing(s), stuff | factor, aspect, issue, material |
| kids | children |
| nowadays | currently, at present |
| really, very | (omit) or highly, particularly |

Phrasal verbs are not banned in academic writing, but a single-word verb is often more precise.

## Hedging (cautious language)

Academic writers qualify claims to match the evidence.

| Device | Examples |
|--------|----------|
| Modal verbs | may, might, could |
| Lexical verbs | suggest, indicate, appear, seem, tend to |
| Adverbs | possibly, probably, arguably, generally |
| Adjectives | likely, possible, probable |
| Quantifiers | some, many, in most cases, to some extent |
| Introductory phrases | It is possible that..., There is evidence that..., This may be because... |

Overclaiming: *This proves that social media is bad for students.* -> *These findings suggest that heavy social
media use may reduce study time for some students.*

## Impersonal style

- Avoid addressing the reader as *you*; use impersonal forms (*It can be seen that...*, *Students may...*).
- First person (*I argue*, *we found*) is accepted in many disciplines, especially in reflective writing and the
  humanities; check the department's conventions.
- Turn rhetorical questions into statements: *Why do students spend so much time online?* -> *The reasons for
  students' high levels of online activity are unclear.*

## Nominalisation and density

*Students use social media more, so they study less.* -> *Increased social media use is associated with reduced
study time.* Teach it for concision, but warn against chains of nouns that obscure meaning.

## Cohesion

| Function | Linking language |
|----------|------------------|
| Addition | Furthermore, In addition, Moreover |
| Contrast | However, In contrast, Nevertheless, Whereas |
| Cause/effect | Therefore, As a result, Consequently, This leads to |
| Example | For example, For instance, Such as |
| Conclusion | In conclusion, Overall, To summarise |

Start sentences with *However* or *Therefore* rather than *But* or *So*.

## Using sources

| Purpose | Reporting verbs |
|---------|-----------------|
| Neutral | states, notes, describes, reports, observes |
| Argue | argues, claims, maintains, contends |
| Tentative | suggests, proposes, speculates |
| Agree / disagree | supports, confirms / challenges, questions, disputes |

Paraphrase: change structure and vocabulary, keep meaning, always cite. Quote only when the exact words matter,
with page numbers.