# Task-Based Language Teaching: Criteria and the Willis Framework

## What makes it a task (Ellis 2003, 2009)

| Criterion | Question to ask | Task | Exercise |
|-----------|-----------------|------|----------|
| Primary focus on meaning | Are learners mainly trying to get a message across? | Agree on a class trip | Make five sentences with *going to* |
| Gap | Do they need to share information, opinions or reasoning to finish? | Each has half a timetable | Everyone has the same sentences |
| Own resources | Do they choose the language themselves? | Use whatever they know | Use the structure on the board |
| Non-linguistic outcome | Is there a result other than "correct language"? | A ranked list, a plan, a decision | Completed worksheet |

Gap types: **information** (A has what B needs - spot the difference, split timetables), **opinion** (personal
preferences, agreement - ranking, planning), **reasoning** (derive new information - puzzles, route planning).

## The Willis framework (Willis 1996; Willis & Willis 2007)

```
PRE-TASK          topic and task intro; topic vocabulary; model (recording of fluent speakers doing the task)
TASK CYCLE
  Task            pairs/groups do the task; teacher monitors, does not correct
  Planning        groups prepare to report: accuracy now matters; teacher helps with language
  Report          groups present / exchange; teacher comments on content first
LANGUAGE FOCUS
  Analysis        learners examine the model transcript or text for useful language
  Practice        practice of items found (drills, completion, memory games)
(Repeat)          optional: repeat the task with new partners
```

Timings for 60 minutes: pre-task 8-10, task 10-15, planning 8-10, report 8-10, language focus 15.

### Pre-task

- Introduce the topic: pictures, brainstorm, a personal question.
- Topic vocabulary is fine; do **not** pre-teach the target structure (that turns it into PPP).
- Make the outcome explicit: "By the end, your group will have one trip plan to present."
- Optional: learners hear fluent speakers doing a similar task.

### Task

- Time limit announced; teacher monitors and notes language for later; minimal intervention.
- Private, low-stakes: fluency and risk-taking matter more than accuracy.

### Planning and report

- Planning gives learners a reason to improve accuracy for a public report.
- Report can be spoken or written (poster, short text); keep each one short.
- Teacher feedback: content first ("Group 2's trip is cheapest - why?"), language later.

### Language focus

- Analysis activities: find phrases for suggesting in the transcript; classify; notice differences between
  learners' language and the model.
- Practice: repetition, gap-fill from memory, sentence completion based on the analysis.
- Include errors from the task cycle (anonymous) and pronunciation.

## Focus on form within TBLT

| Technique | When |
|-----------|------|
| Pre-task topic vocabulary | Before the task, not grammar |
| Recasts and prompts during the task | Sparingly, if communication breaks down |
| Planning-stage help | Learners ask, teacher supplies |
| Post-task analysis and practice | Main language work |
| Task repetition | Improves fluency and complexity |

## Task complexity (adjust difficulty without changing the task)

| Factor | Easier | Harder |
|--------|--------|--------|
| Planning time | Given | None |
| Here-and-now vs there-and-then | Pictures in front of learners | From memory |
| Number of elements | Two options | Six options |
| Reasoning demand | Information transfer | Justify a decision |
| Familiarity | Familiar topic | New topic |
| Support | Useful phrases on the board | None |

## Common faults

- A "task" that is a disguised grammar exercise ("discuss using the second conditional").
- No outcome, so groups stop after two minutes.
- Teacher corrects during the task.
- Skipping the language focus: learners stay fluent but inaccurate.
- Reports that take twenty minutes: limit time and number of groups reporting.